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William I, Prince of Orange (1533-1584), also known as William the Silent and William the Taciturn, was a wealthy nobleman from the Dutch provinces of the Spanish Netherlands. He originally served the Spanish Habsburgs, but increasing dissatisfaction with the centralisation of power away from the local estates and Spanish persecution of Dutch Protestants led William to join the Dutch revolt and becoming its main leader.<br/><br/> As leader of the uprising, William led the Dutch to several successes against the Spanish, setting off the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648). He was declared an outlaw by the Spanish king in 1580, before helping to declare the formal independence of the Dutch Republic, also known as the United Provinces, in 1581. He was eventually assassinated by Balthasar Gerard in 1584.<br/><br/> William was the founder of the House of Orange-Nassau, making him the ancestor of the present Dutch monarchy. Within the Netherlands he is also fondly remembered as the 'Father of the Fatherland'.
Germany: Portrait of Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 - 12 February 1804), German philosopher and writer. Oil painting by Gottlieb Doebler (c. 1762 - 1810), 1791. Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher considered by many as a vital figure in the development of modern philosophy. Kant argued that the human mind forms the structure of human experience, and that reason was the source of morality, among many other ideas. He was one of the earliest exponents of the belief that perpetual peace could be achieved through universal democracy and international cooperation.
Adolf of Germany (1255-1298), also known as Adolf of Nassau, was the son of Walram II, Count of Nassau, and succeeded his father in 1276. When King Rudolf I died in 1291 without managing to secure the election of his eldest son Albert, Adolf was chosen by the Elector College of imperial princes and bishops, thinking him easy to control and manipulate. He was elected as King of Germany in 1292.<br/><br/> Adolf immediately had to pay and make significant concessions to the electors and archbishops who had given him the crown. Adolf had negligible power and influence within his own empire, but he soon tried to break away from the yoke of the electors and bishops who had elected him, concluding pacts with their opponents and breaking promises made but making sure not to be accused of breaching any contracts signed.<br/><br/> The electors grew increasingly wary of Adolf's policies and moves, which were often not in line with their own interests. They eventually banded together and deposed Adolf, charging him with various crimes and of breaking promises made. Albert I, son of the late King Rudolf I, was elected as the new king in 1298, and killed Adolf in battle when the former king refused to give up his power. Adolf became the first physically and mentally healthy ruler of the Holy Roman Empire to be deposed without a papal excommunication first.
Frederick I (1122-1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa, was the nephew of German king Conrad III, and became Duke of Swabia in 1147. When Conrad died in 1152, he named Frederick as his successor on his deathbed, rather than his own son, Frederick IV of Swabia. He was later crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman emperor in 1155, as well as being proclaimed King of Burgundy in 1178.<br/><br/> Frederick was given the name Barbarossa ('red beard') by the northern Italian cities he attempted to conquer, waging six campaigns in all to subsume Italy, struggling constantly with the various popes and interference from the Byzantine Empire. Frederick embarked on the Third Crusade in 1189, after his sixth and final Italian expedition ended in success, a massive campaign in conjunction with the French King Philip Augustus and the English King Richard the Lionheart.<br/><br/> Before Frederick even arrived in Jerusalem however, he drowned in the Saleph river in 1190, leaving the German army in a state of chaos and ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Crusader army. He was considered an exceptionally charismatic leader and one of the Holy Roman Empire's greatest mediaeval emperors, with his contributions including the reestablishment of the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' (Roman rule of law). His qualities were considered almost superhuman by some, his ambition, longevity, organisational skills, battlefield acumen and political perspicuity all adding to his reputation.
Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was a blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced the printing press. His usage of movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation and the Scientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.<br/><br/> Gutenberg was the first European to use movable type printing, in around 1439. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His acclaim is due to the engineering of these elements into a practical system for the mass production of printed books, that was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg's method for making type was an improvement over the Chinese Bi Sheng's from 400 years earlier, and is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type.<br/><br/> The use of durable metallic movable type allowed rapid mass production of printed works. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe, and quickly replaced most of the handwritten manuscript methods of book production throughout the world. Woodblock printing, rubrication, and engraving continued to be used to supplement Gutenberg's printing process.<br/><br/> His first major work using his printing methods was the Gutenberg Bible.
Halley's Comet or Comet Halley is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.
Shigeru Aoki (1882-1911) was a Japanese painter famed for his combining of Japanese mythology and legends with the Western-style art movement that could be found in some late 19th and early 20th century Japanese paintings.<br/><br/> Aoki was born into an ex-samurai household in northern Kyushu. He left his home in 1899 to pursue artistic studies in Tokyo, and soon began to accumulate critical acclaim for his artwork and its use of Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood techniques mixed with Kojiki themes. He died in March 1911 from tuberculosis, aged only 28.
Shigeru Aoki (1882-1911) was a Japanese painter famed for his combining of Japanese mythology and legends with the Western-style art movement that could be found in some late 19th and early 20th century Japanese paintings.<br/><br/> Aoki was born into an ex-samurai household in northern Kyushu. He left his home in 1899 to pursue artistic studies in Tokyo, and soon began to accumulate critical acclaim for his artwork and its use of Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood techniques mixed with Kojiki themes. He died in March 1911 from tuberculosis, aged only 28.
Anne of Brittany (French: Anne de Bretagne; Breton: Anna Breizh) (25/26 January 1477 – 9 January 1514) was Duchess of Brittany from 1488 until her death, and queen consort of France from 1491 to 1498 and from 1499 to her death. She is the only woman to have been queen consort of France twice. During the Italian Wars, Anne also became queen consort of Naples, from 1501 to 1504, and duchess consort of Milan, in 1499–1500 and from 1500 to 1512.
Yamato Takeru (c. 72-113), originally known as Prince Osu, was a legendary and mythical figure in Japan. He was a prince of the Yamato Dynasty, son of 12th emperor of Japan, Emperor Keiko. The life and death of Yamato are primarily chronicled in the tales 'Kojiki' (712 CE) and 'Nihon Shoki' (720 CE).<br/><br/> For slaying his elder brother, Osu was sent to fight in Izumo Province by his father, who feared his brutal temperament. Instead of being killed however, Osu succeeded in defeating his enemies and was gifted the title 'Yamato Takeru' (The Brave of Yamato). His father was not convinced, still fearing him and wishing his death.<br/><br/> Next, Yamato was sent eastwards to deal with those who had disobeyed the imperial court, armed with the holy sword 'Kusanagi'. During a great storm, his wife sacrificed herself to appease the sea god, and in his anger he defeated many enemies. However, his blaspheming of a local god of Mount Ibuki led to him being cursed and dying. His soul turned into a great white bird and flew away. His tomb is located in Ise Province, and is known as the Mausoleum of the White Plover.
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer during the Renaissance. He was for many years an official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs.<br/><br/> Macchiavelli was a founder of modern political science, and more specifically political ethics. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power.<br/><br/> He wrote his masterpiece, <i>The Prince</i>, after the Medici had recovered power and he no longer held a position of responsibility in Florence. His views on the importance of a strong ruler who was not afraid to be harsh with his subjects and enemies were most likely influenced by the Italian city-states, which due to a lack of unification were very vulnerable to other unified nation-states, such as France.
Lorenzo de' Medici (1 January 1449 – 9 April 1492) was an Italian statesman and de facto ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent (Lorenzo il Magnifico) by contemporary Florentines, he was a magnate, diplomat, politician and patron of scholars, artists, and poets. He is perhaps best known for his contribution to the art world, sponsoring artists such as Botticelli and Michelangelo. His life coincided with the mature phase of Italian Renaissance and his death coincided with the end of the Golden Age of Florence.
James Cook FRS RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer, ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy. Cook was the first to map Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. Cook died in Hawaii in a fight with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779.
Halley's Comet or Comet Halley is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.
Ayutthaya (also spelled Ayudhya) was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1351 to 1767. Ayutthaya was friendly towards foreign traders, including the Chinese, Vietnamese, Indians, Japanese and Persians, and later the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and French, permitting them to set up villages outside the walls of the capital, also called Ayutthaya.<br/><br/> In the sixteenth century, it was described by foreign traders as one of the biggest and wealthiest cities in the East. The court of King Narai (1656–88) had strong links with that of King Louis XIV of France, whose ambassadors compared the city in size and wealth to Paris.<br/><br/> By 1550, the kingdom's vassals included some city-states in the Malay Peninsula, Sukhothai, and parts of Cambodia.
Herman Melville (August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include <i>Typee</i> (1846), a romantic account of his experiences in Polynesian life, and his whaling novel <i>Moby Dick</i> (1851). His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years. <br/><br/> His writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change. He developed a complex, baroque style: the vocabulary is rich and original, a strong sense of rhythm infuses the elaborate sentences, the imagery is often mystical or ironic, and the abundance of allusion extends to scripture, myth, philosophy, literature, and the visual arts.
Shigeru Aoki (1882-1911) was a Japanese painter famed for his combining of Japanese mythology and legends with the Western-style art movement that could be found in some late 19th and early 20th century Japanese paintings.<br/><br/> Aoki was born into an ex-samurai household in northern Kyushu. He left his home in 1899 to pursue artistic studies in Tokyo, and soon began to accumulate critical acclaim for his artwork and its use of Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood techniques mixed with Kojiki themes. He died in March 1911 from tuberculosis, aged only 28.
Dostoevsky was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist, journalist and philosopher. Dostoyevsky's literary works explore human psychology in the troubled political, social, and spiritual atmosphere of 19th-century Russia. Many of his works contain a strong emphasis on Christianity, and its message of absolute love, forgiveness and charity, explored within the realm of the individual, confronted with all of life's hardships and beauty.<br/><br/> He began writing in his 20s, and his first novel, Poor Folk, was published in 1846 when he was 25. His major works include Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). His output consists of eleven novels, three novellas, seventeen short novels and numerous other works. Many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest and most prominent psychologists in world literature. His novella Notes From Underground is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature.
The British conquest of Burma began in 1824 in response to a Burmese attempt to invade India. By 1886, and after two further wars, Britain had incorporated the entire country into the British Raj. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in Indians and Chinese, who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day Rangoon and Mandalay have large ethnic Indian populations. Railways and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous Insein Prison, then as now used for political prisoners.<br/><br/>Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Rangoon on occasion all the way until the 1930s. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. Burma finally gained independence from Britain on January 4, 1948.
British territorial acquisitions in the countries that now comprise Malaysia and Singapore date back to 1786, when the Sultan of Kedah, menaced both by occasional Burmese and Siamese attacks, ceded Penang Island to the British East India Company in exchange for protection against his aggressive northern neighbours.<br/><br/> On August 11, 1786, Captain – later Sir – Francis Light took possession of the island and renamed it Prince of Wales Island. In 1798 a strip of coastal territory opposite Penang was similarly ceded to the British, and renamed Province Wellesley.<br/><br/> In 1946 Singapore became a separate Crown Colony, while Penang and Malacca both joined the Malayan Union, which became the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Two years later, in August 1965, Singapore left the federation and became an independent state in its own right.
The British conquest of Burma began in 1824 in response to a Burmese attempt to invade India. By 1886, and after two further wars, Britain had incorporated the entire country into the British Raj. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in Indians and Chinese, who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day Rangoon and Mandalay have large ethnic Indian populations. Railways and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous Insein Prison, then as now used for political prisoners.<br/><br/> Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Rangoon on occasion all the way until the 1930s. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. Burma finally gained independence from Britain on January 4, 1948.
Cleopatra VII (69—30 BCE) was the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt and last of the Ptolemaic dynasty.<br/><br/> Famed historically as a classic femme fatale, Cleopatra seduced Roman emperor Julius Caesar in order to secure her place on the Egyptian throne. After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, Rome became divided between his heir, Gaius Octavian (later known as Augustus), and his military commander Mark Anthony. Cleopatra aligned herself with Mark Anthony and used her powers of seduction upon him. He fell in love with her and stayed with her at the Egyptian court in Alexandria. The couple had two children. But after losing the Battle of Actium, both Mark Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide rather than be taken to Rome as prisoners. Cleopatra famously killed herself on 12th August, 30 BCE, by the bite of an asp.<br/><br/> In this scene from her court in Alexandria, Cleopatra has bet her lover Mark Anthony that she could there and then host a banquet for the princely sum of 10 million sestertia. After Mark Anthony accepted the wager, Cleopatra removed one of her pearl earrings, dissolved it in vinegar, then drank it. She is in the process of removing her second earring to do likewise, but is stopped by the disapproving former Roman senator Lucius Plancus.
In the New Testament of the Christian Bible, Jesus walked past a lake and saw some fishermen at work. He called on them to follow him and be his disciples: “Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.”—Matthew 4:19.<br/><br/> This passage is generally taken to mean that Christ was calling on the fishermen to become missionaries, convert unbelievers, and spread his word. In 1614, Adriaen Van de Venne used the idea to illustrate the fierce battle for people’s souls that was taking place at the time between Protestants and Roman Catholics. In the lake we see Protestants dressed in black on the left fighting for souls against Catholics on the right led by a bishop.<br/><br/> This allegorical masterpiece was also a political statement: Spain and the Netherlands had signed an armistice in 1609 that would last until 1621 (the 12-year Truce), but not end the 80 Years War (1568-1648). The painter depicts the Protestants as members of the Dutch House of Orange bathed in light, while the Catholics are in cloudy darkness. The tree on the left is in full bloom while the Catholics’ tree is withered. In fact, Van de Venne did not paint any nude swimmers going to the Catholics’ boats in his original canvas. Those converts were painted in later.
In this scene from the Book of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), the Witch of Endor summons the spirit of the recently deceased prophet Samuel at the request of Saul, the king of Israel.<br/><br/> King Saul had consulted the witch, often referred to as the Medium of Endor, on the eve of a battle with the Philistines. The witch summons Samuel who prophesizes that the Philistines will win the battle and that Saul’s sons will be killed. Saul is told he is being punished for turning his back on God. The prophesy comes true and Saul commits suicide by falling on his sword.
The tale of Salome comes from the New Testament of the Christian Bible.<br/><br/> During the reign of Herod Antipas (4 BCE–49 CE)—the seventh son of Herod the Great, King of Judea—John the Baptist had been arrested and imprisoned for denouncing the king’s marriage to his sister-in-law, Herodias because both were divorcees. John’s life was spared due to his popularity in Judea.<br/><br/> However, at a royal banquet, Herodias’ daughter Salome performed an exotic sensual dance that so entranced Herod that he offered her anything from his kingdom that she wanted. She asked for the head of John the Baptist.
In the classic tale from the Hebrew Bible, or Christian Old Testament, Samson is an Israelite of great physical strength. He confides in his lover, Delilah, that the secret of his strength is his long hair, which has never been cut since the day he was born. Delilah betrays Samson by informing his enemies.<br/><br/> In this famous scene, Samson is asleep in the lap of his mistress who urges an accomplice to cut Samson’s hair with the scissors she wields. He is hesitant and afraid.<br/><br/> Eventually, the servant cuts Samson’s hair. Samson is overpowered and arrested. But when he is taken in chains to a temple feast, Samson pushes over two great pillars causing the entire temple to fall down, killing everyone inside, including himself.
In a famous scene from the Hebrew Bible, or Christian Old Testament, Isaac—the only son of Abraham and Sarah— blesses his younger son Jacob from his deathbed.<br/><br/> Now Isaac is old and blind, and thinks he is blessing his elder son, Esau. Jacob has covered his hands in goatskin in imitation of his hirsute brother Esau to trick his father. Jacob’s mother, Rebecca, looks on anxiously. She is an accomplice to Jacob’s scheme. To win over her son’s heart, Rebecca has prepared a meal of goat meat for him. It lies on a table behind them.<br/><br/> Govert Flinck (1615-60) was a student of Rembrandt until 1636 when he moved toward another mentor, Rembrandt’s rival Van der Helst.
Van Haarlem depicts a horrific scene from the Old Testament of the Christian Bible in this 16th century oil on canvas masterpiece.<br/><br/> King Herod has heard that a new King of the Jews has been born in Bethlehem. Unable to identify the Messiah, he orders his soldiers to kill every boy in Bethlehem aged two or under. According to the Hebrew Bible, Mary and Joseph had already fled to Egypt with their newborn, Jesus. They stayed in Egypt until after Herod's death.<br/><br/> In the painting, Herod's naked soldiers kill mothers protecting their babies. Then they murder the babies too. In the left corner, a gang of mothers tackle a soldier and gouge out his eyes.
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese. It was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia, including establishing colonies in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India.<br/><br/> In 1658, the VOC sent Baldaeus from The Netherlands to Jaffna in northern Ceylon to work as a missionary.<br/><br/> In this painting, Baldaeus wears Mughal dress including a checked turban. The Sinhalese man wears a lungi and appears to be of the farming caste of Vellalas.
Known originally as the ‘Spes Nostra’, meaning ‘Our Hope’, this painting depicts St. Augustine (354—430 CE), the Bishop of Hippo Regius (present-day Annaba, Algeria), a philosopher and theologian who converted to Christianity and was influential for spreading the word of Christ in North Africa.<br/><br/> Venerated in Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox churches, Augustine is patron of the Augustinian order, and is considered patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.<br/><br/> In the center of the painting, sitting on the monastery’s courtyard wall, is the Virgin Mary. Elizabeth places a hand on Mary's belly to indicate that she is pregnant. Behind Mary, in the background, a young Jesus rides a hobby horse.<br/><br/> In front of the grave, an epitaph reads: 'If anyone passes here, let them see this and weep. I am where you will be; what you are I once was. I beg you: pray for me'.
Breitner was one of several European artists in the late 19th century who was intrigued by the East, Orientalism, or in this case, 'Japanism'. Breitner painted several canvases of girls in kimonos. The model appears relaxed but seductive. The studio is furnished with Eastern rugs and, behind the bed, a traditional Japanese screen.
Scipio (235–183 BCE), also known as Scipio Africanus and Scipio the Elder, was a Roman general in the Second Punic War. He is best known for defeating Hannibal and the Carthaginians at the Battle of Zama near Carthage on October 19, 202 BCE.<br/><br/> Scipio was indeed magnanimous in victory, refusing to raze Carthage to the ground. He later consented to Hannibal being appointed civic leader in Carthage. Scipio did, however, deal ruthlessly with any of his own troops who deserted—Latins were beheaded and Romans were crucified.
In Greek mythology, Agamemnon was the king of Mycenae, or Argos. He and his brother Menelaus were also known as 'Atrides', the sons of Atreus. Agamemnon had four children by his wife Clytaemnestra. Menelaus was married to Clytaemnestra's sister, Helen. When Helen was abducted—or seduced—by the Trojan Paris, the result was the Trojan war. Agamemnon was a central player in the war as both commander of the Greek fleet and Helen's brother-in-law. In order to summon up winds to propel his ships, he was forced to sacrifice his daughter Iphigeneia to the goddess Artemis. This eventually led to his downfall. Clytaemnestra never forgave Agamemnon for the death of her daughter and took her revenge years later when he returned from Troy.
According to Christianity, the Three Kings, or Three Wise Men, travelled from the East to Bethlehem to pay homage to the newly born Messiah, the son of God. Cradled in his mother the Virgin Mary’s hands, the baby Jesus holds up his hand in a blessing. Before him kneels King Melchior, offering a gift of gold. Joseph, Mary's husband, stands behind in red.
Known in the Christian Bible as the Adoration of the Magi, this vivid scene depicts the Virgin Mary, mother of Christ, sitting in a ruined palace with the baby Jesus in her hands.<br/><br/> The Three Kings (the Magi) have come to Bethlehem to honour the child. They are dressed in their finest clothes. The kings , having removed their crowns, kneel and kiss the Christ's hand. Each bear's a gift, gold, frankincense and myrrh. Joseph stands in red in the background.
According to Christian legend, Mary and Joseph took their new son, Jesus, to the Temple in Jerusalem where two people immediately recognized him as the Messiah, the son of God. One was an old man called Simeon; the other was a pious old woman named Anna.<br/><br/> In the Middle Ages, Anna was often included in portrayals of the presentation at the Temple or the Circumcision. Here, Rembrandt van Rijn show St. Anna reading a Hebrew bible.
Amboina, or Ambon, would remain the main base of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) from 1605 until its headquarters moved to Batavia, now Jakarta, in 1619.<br/><br/> The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies.<br/><br/> The VOC was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese.<br/><br/> Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods.
The Dutch East India Company, or VOC, was a chartered company granted a monopoly by the Dutch government to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first megacorporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, imprison and execute convicts, negotiate treaties, coin money and establish colonies.<br/><br/> The VOC was set up in 1602 to gain a foothold in the East Indies (Indonesia) for the Dutch in the lucrative spice trade, which until that point was dominated by the Portuguese. It also established forts and factories in India.<br/><br/> Between 1602 and 1796, the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, and netted more than 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods.
James Cook FRS RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer, ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy. Cook was the first to map Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. Cook died in Hawaii in a fight with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779.
Andromeda was the daughter of an Ethiopian king in Greek mythology who, as divine punishment for her mother's bragging, the Boast of Cassiopeia, was chained to a rock as a sacrifice to a sea monster aroused by the queen's hubris. She was saved from death by Perseus, her future husband. Her name is the Latinized form of the Greek Ἀνδρομέδα (Androméda) or Ἀνδρομέδη (AndromédÄ“): 'ruler of men'.<br/><br/> The subject has been popular in art since classical times; it is one of several Greek myths of a Greek hero's rescue of the intended victim of an archaic sacred marriage, giving rise to the 'princess and dragon' motif. From the Renaissance, interest revived in the original story, typically as derived from Ovid's account.
Oiran (花é­) were the courtesans of Edo period Japan. The oiran were considered a type of yÅ«jo (éŠå¥³) 'woman of pleasure' or prostitute. However, they were distinguished from the yÅ«jo in that they were entertainers, and many became celebrities of their times outside the pleasure districts. Their art and fashions often set trends among the wealthy and, because of this, cultural aspects of oiran traditions continue to be preserved to this day.<br/><br/> The oiran arose in the Edo period (1600–1868). At this time, laws were passed restricting brothels to walled districts set some distance from the city center. In the major cities these were the Shimabara in Kyoto, the Shinmachi in Osaka, and the Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo).<br/><br/> These rapidly grew into large, self-contained 'pleasure quarters' offering all manner of entertainments. Within, a courtesan’s birth rank held no distinction, which was fortunate considering many of the courtesans originated as the daughters of impoverished families who were sold into this lifestyle as indentured servants. Instead, they were categorized based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability.<br/><br/> Among the oiran, the tayÅ« (太夫) was considered the highest rank of courtesan and were considered suitable for the daimyo or feudal lords. In the mid-1700s courtesan rankings began to disappear and courtesans of all classes were collectively known simply as 'oiran'.<br/><br/> The word oiran comes from the Japanese phrase oira no tokoro no nÄ“san (ãŠã„らã®æ‰€ã®å§‰ã•) which translates as 'my elder sister'. When written in Japanese, it consists of two kanji, 花 meaning 'flower', and é­ sansmeaning 'leader' or 'first', hence 'Leading Flower' or 'First Flower'.
Algeria: Bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, (August 26-27, 1816). Oil on canvas painting by Martinus Schouman (1770 - 1848), 1823. The Bombardment of Algiers was an attempt by Britain to end the slavery practices of the Dey of Algiers. An Anglo-Dutch fleet under the command of Admiral Lord Exmouth bombarded ships and the harbour defences of Algiers.<br/><br/> Although there was a continuing campaign by various European and the American navies to suppress the piracy against Europeans by the North African Barbary states, the specific aim of this expedition was to free Christian slaves and to stop the practice of enslaving Europeans. To this end, it was partially successful as the Dey of Algiers freed around 3,000 slaves following the bombardment and signed a treaty against the slavery of Europeans. However, the cessation of slavery did not last long.